Fonte:
http://identidadandaluza.wordpress.com/2009/12/15/al-andalus-conjuncion-de-culturas/
In some ways these ideas are to continue and to insist My other previous work, also reflective about the 'fact Andalusian' in one of the moments of its history. It seems obvious considering the fact that al-Andalus was not one and the same in successive periods, from those of political and administrative splendor of decline the brightest, in final Granada, or the whole hangover left behind in Moorish times. That said, it is obvious, which could be further explored could be the actions and reactions that had the Andalusian society, in these various eras, both face within itself as to the outside world, subject to various stimuli that were and those around her.
Al-Andalus-that is part of Islamic Iberian Peninsula had a variable extent depending on the period-was the result of a dialectic, the product of a centuries-long internal action and reaction. The phenomenon of Al-Andalus is that of Arabization and Islamization and religious culture, but largely ethnic. Arabization and Islamization ample funds were made on civilized population, in a sense etymological urban and rural Hispano-layer from above, with Visigothic elements added is clear that the establishment of the Arab population was important, not only through military tickets, which were decisive, but also on an ongoing basis, emigration, commercial and peaceful settlement. But can nevertheless be noted that the former population was as Islamised which is largely Arabized, or at least he stayed within the Arab political and administrative structure with all its consequences. And that town was the skeleton of Al Andalus, and in some sense, that of Christian Spain as it it was created.
Al Andalus is always presented as a special phenomenon, different from common. Al-Andalus was seen at first, for the Eastern Arabs, as "the distant sunset, the Far West", tub hamqa, land inept as he calls Al-Ğāhiz. Arab travelers are amazed by the manners and customs of that country and that Muslims follow procedures and fashions, for example military, typical of European Christians. The literature produced by writers Andalusian petty it seems, except in extraordinary cases which cause surprise.
These negative stimuli occurred in the early, imitative and subordinate reactions in man-Andalus.
Este al que yo llamo ‘hombre andalusí’ era -como es sabido- una mezcla muy reciente de los inmigrantes árabes, que habían venido con todos aquellos prejuicios, de los bereberes, sus compañeros de cultura amazigh, y de las poblaciones mal arabizadas que procedían del fondo hispanorromano y godo; junto con las poblaciones judías. El hombre andalusí reaccionó, adaptándose a los modelos orientales, plegándose a ellos como ejemplos ideales del buen hacer y del buen decir, superando sus propias contradicciones de amalgama.
Sin embargo, también a partir del Califato y durante el siglo XI sobre todo, la reacción frente al complejo imitativo tomó el signo contrario. It was probably the reform. Education, driven particularly by 'Abd al-Rahman III and his successors, which-to give "full prominence to the good teaching of the Arabic language" to get the charges of government-provided the intellectual andalusíes a self-confidence in their Arab culture and, therefore, a podium to enhance their self-worth. And this occurred both among the Muslims, and between Jews and Christians Arabized, thereby creating the outline of what later would focus on an imaginary model, which is the 'paradise Andalus', including Sephardic, no less imaginary in many aspects.
Si algo tuvo Al-Andalus de edad dorada y de modelo, obedeció, sin duda, a su mestizaje, a la conjunción de sus diferencias. Al-Andalus era un producto híbrido. La pluralidad interna que siempre han tenido las Españas, unida, en aquellas épocas, a una pluralidad de religiones, tres en concreto, tuvo como consecuencia un producto cohesionado, gracias, tal vez, a que sus tensiones fueron cuerdamente resueltas -y regidas- a lo largo de bastante tiempo. Indudablemente no se trató de un paraíso, excepto en el recuerdo del bien perdido que todo lo hermosea, sino de una aplicación continuada de una idea de estado -durante la época omeya- de un equilibrio, y de la comprensión de unas gentes las unas para las otras. Lasted as long as it lasted, and his example, not only his memory, was a model of what is desirable. But it was an internal plural, an alternative understanding of Hispanic basically Semitic garb, particularly Arabic, which reproduced the small, cohesive efforts as immediate past-the caliphate of Damascus, and where the foreign, ie the European and African, was the main cause of its disintegration and destruction. Once broken
balances and tensions facing the golden age nostalgia disappeared and was converted into a paradise, even the archetype.
Something that is obvious, in immediate connection with the particularities of certain cities and regions, and internal links muladí fund, Moorish and Christian-are independent, however, the origins of the Hispano population that settled on the Arabization and Islam. The southern half and the southeast peninsula had been the cradle of the great pre-Roman cultures, including Tartessian or Turdetano, which had joined the contributions Phoenician, Greek and Punic. The interior of the peninsula had other cultures, very homogeneous, immediate and continuous contact with those with social and political worlds Mediterranean. Romanization approved coverage gave everything, but why we should pensar que sustituyó a todo, excepto en la lengua y, probablemente, en una conciencia de comunidad cultural imbricada con la pluralidad básica. La romanización, que tenía mucho de oriental en sí misma, continuó durante unos años con la bizantinización del sur peninsular. Y a una, y a otra, vino a completar, que no a suplir, la arabización, que era otra hija de la romanización en buena parte y que había bebido en las mismas fuentes.
Lo godo dentro de Al-Andalus se juntó con lo hispanorromano, imbricado, como ya estaba, con el fondo hispano durante los últimos tiempos de la monarquía visigoda; y lo judío ya estuvo presente durante el período de la romanización -traído by it or from pre-Roman times, bringing the set was completed, forming the bottom of which we are speaking. The 'nationalism' Andalusian, based on this background, is what might occur during the Caliphate, during the actual division of the Taifa kingdoms on the mainland Christian times, and even in what is left of Al-Andalus for the time modern.
administrative and educational reform, undertaken by 'Abd al-Rahman III and his successors, together with the weight of a new social class of the freedmen, beyond the traditional Arab family and its power, made the political dominance of these families look very reduced, matched prácticamente por los andalusíes del fondo hispanorromano, por los propios saqãliba o libertos y por algunos bereberes. Lo andalusí pasó a ser fundamentalmente andalusí, de forma árabe pero no de importación. Creo que esto ya se venía dando desde hacía mucho tiempo, pero probablemente fue el concepto de estado integrador omeya lo que precipitó el fenómeno, junto con la voluntad y el ejemplo de los mismos grandes califas. El concepto de estado integrador e igualador sobrevivió a la caída política del Califato, y todos los régulos de Taifas quisieron mirarse en él y en cierto modo considerarse unos meros representantes suyos, los virreyes de un califa ausente, más que sus sucesores siempre locales.
Los almorávides, que vinieron del Magreb a partir de la fitna califal, fracasaron en la Península, pese a la decisiva influencia andalusí dentro de sus modos y Administración prolongada y aumentada con los almohades, porque no vinculaban todas las contradicciones internas peninsulares frente al exterior; sino que ellos eran el exterior. Lo que la sociedad de la Península necesitaba era un Estado atípico, al estilo del que había empezado a formarse bajo el Califato. Alfonso VI y Alfonso VII pretendieron rehacerlo bajo una forma cristiana y más feudalizada; Alfonso X y, más tarde, Pedro I, incluso los Trastámara, oscilaron en lo mismo; y esto sólo entre los reyes de Castilla-León. Su modelo y his thoughts were largely those of an inclusive state, common to all Hispanics, Christians, Muslims and Jews, with their personalities and cultures in tow. It was a peninsular model.
To strengthen this model came to join the Mozarabic, or Andalusian Arabized Christians, the musta'ribeen-musta'aribīn, who had occupied all public officials, with freedom of worship, and even military responsibilities before, during and even after the Caliphate in close contact with the independent Christian kingdoms of the north, and the early Christians muladíes or Visigoths and Hispano or themselves but Islamized. The Mozarabic perdieron peso y fuerza con la entrada de los almorávides, y buena parte de ellos emigró a los reinos cristianos.
Es de todos sabido que el Islam ve a los judíos y a los cristianos como los Hombres del Libro, la Torah y el ́Inğīl o Nuevo Testamento, o sea la Biblia, sagradas escrituras como el Corán; y en consecuencia con plena potestad de ejercer sus religiones. En la época califal de Al-Andalus tuvieron esta libertad bajo la autoridad de sus rabinos y de sus obispos. Protegidos bajo el estatuto de ‘dimmíes’, pagaban únicamente unos determinados tributos y ejercían, como he dicho antes, toda clase de profesiones, cargos e instituciones, así como poseían sus sinagogas e iglesias. Evidentemente this continued in the period of so-called "Taifa Kingdoms-tawa 'if-and immediately before, during the difficult fall of the Caliphate and its division was intended circumstantial, that is the time of fitna, but there was a significant gap in the short rule of the southern North African Almoravids and had some difficulties in the long incorporation of Al-Andalus to the Almohad empire Moroccan. They and their successors almohades meriníes and kept in Morocco wattasíes mercenary Christian militias in part, probably, were minted Mozarabic, being known by the generic Farfan, which, transformed into a family name, aún quedan personas en Fez. Mozárabe quizás fue el real y legendario co-fundador del reino de Portugal, un ricohombre de nombre Egas Móniz. Y al propio Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar se le atribuye a veces un origen mozárabe, lo que seguramente no es cierto pese a su arabización manifiesta, muy común por otra parte en muchos de los caballeros castellanos de estas épocas, como en su propio sobrino Munaya Álvar Fáñez, e incluso en los reyes.
Los mozárabes conservaron dentro del territorio musulmán y en los reinos cristianos muchas de las antiguas iglesias visigodas, y les dieron un sello propio. Construyeron otras a las que aportaron, junto con bastantes elementos innovadores, producto de su mestizaje cultural with Arab and Muslim world, not only unique artistic features, helping to change the customs and lifestyles in the realms of northern and central mainland, maintaining their religious rite to this day albeit testimonial.
regard to the third culture and the third religion of Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms, which means, among Jews, present and influential during the reign of the Visigoth and Byzantine occupation, his coming and his establishment in the Iberian Peninsula are uncertain. According to its sources may have come during the time of King Solomon son of David, joint business trips with the Phoenicians Turdetania or Tartessós, Tarshish, as mentioned in the Old Testament, establishing joint colonies. But the Roman empire, especially after the Diaspora, when Jews appear to have a significant population mass and strong, closely linked to the Hispano people and equipped with interactive links with Jewish communities from North Africa Palestine or Berbers converted. During the Visigothic kingdom relations between the Germanic aristocracy and the Jewish community went through moments of rupture and Visigothic persecution, the Jews received generally supported by the Hispano and their fellow Jews from North Africa. Accordingly
the emergence of Islam among the Arabs, which is nothing but the 'reenactment' Arabic-Semitic idea of \u200b\u200bOne God, to put it in some way, change all situations. The rapid spread of Islam across North Africa, mass voluntary conversions among the Berbers, the authority and direction of government of the Arab Umayyad rule in Damascus, recently opened, soon made it almost like a religious idea and the Mosaic similar to the Arian, who had been the religion of the Visigoths had recently been planted in front of the Iberian Peninsula.
The Visigoths were divided into a kind of aristocratic civil war among the most conservative and Germanic, and the closest to the Hispano population and culture, along with internal tensions remained between the former Arians and Catholics converted by the new monarchical order. At the time it occurs the entry of the Muslims, the Visigoth king Rodrigo represented the conservative camp after the death of King Witiza of opposite disposition, and the children of a rebellion Witiza kept hidden, tolerated by the insecurity of Rodrigo, allowing them to hold high military posts and church in the south and east of the peninsula.
is therefore very likely that the children have prepared a revolt Witiza seeking la alianza de los musulmanes establecidos al otro lado del Estrecho y que lo hayan hecho a través de las comunidades judías de la Península y del norte de África, y de sus propios partidarios y dignatarios de origen bereber, como el conde Olián –el don Julián de las leyendas y romances- gobernador visigodo de Tánger.
La batalla de Guadalete o de la Janda es más bien un choque entre visigodos, puesto que las fuerzas mandadas por los hijos de Vitiza se revolvieron contra Rodrigo auxiliadas por los musulmanes desembarcados hacía poco. Las ciudades fueron cayendo rápidamente unas tras otras y, conforme avanzaba el ejército vencedor, tropas judías se encargaban del cuidado y defensa de las plazas. Ya sabemos que The initial approach was changed and that Islam, after the new expansion so easy and so ingrained in some way with Jews, Hispano, and a large proportion of the Visigoths, who established his government, leading to Al-Andalus. Many Hispano-Visigoths and many were becoming Muslims, and called them muladíes, others kept their Christianity and gradually Arabized leading the Mozarabic we've seen. The Jews were also under Arab rule, firstly dependent on Damascus, after the Emirate and independent Umayyad Caliphate, the Taifa Almoravids and Almohad empires and the kingdom of Granada. The whole life of Al-Andalus. For them, the whole life Sefarad.
Sefarad –Al-Andalus judío- fue probablemente la mejor época y más fructífera de la dispersión hebrea de la Diáspora. Los sefardíes destacaron en todo, ocuparon los más altos cargos, cultivaron la mística, la ciencia, la medicina, la filosofía, la literatura; fueron primeros ministros, diplomáticos y gobernantes como Ḥasday ben Šaprūt con el califa ‘Abd al-Raḥmān III, los Ben Nagrella en el reino de Taifas de Granada, Yehudā ha-Levi en el reino cristiano pero arabizado de Castilla… Y por supuesto el cordobés Mošē ben Maymōn, Maimónides, filósofo y médico universal del periodo almohade, entre una myriad of talents of all kinds.
I talked about the cultural and linguistic Arabization of the Umayyad period and from it, but we know that there was a bilingual colloquial people also spoke in Romance dialects, including the noble origin and stamp Arabs, sang them, and called many things about everyday life in them, and they got along with the Christians of the north, many of which, in turn, spoke and read Arabic. It is quite possible that these romances and talking about inter-lingua colloquial Arabic has been maintained until very advanced, which is beginning to study.
All these samples mixed-race mixture, mixing languages and cultures-this adaptation, appropriation and to some extent 'nationalism' are those that characterize the phenomenon Andalusian and counteract the inflow from Europe, also resisting the Islamic Reform Movement in the Maghreb, and keeping the Andalusian phenomenon even during the late Middle Ages. The circumstances of the mixture are those set to Al-Andalus as such and to characterize, in turn, to the same neighboring Christian kingdoms, relatives, allies and enemies in a dynamic that transcends, in my view, a purely defensive offensive or moving boundaries. Some Christian kingdoms, despite the European feudal influences, visible in some than others, are special, different and characteristic of cohabitation, to put it in some way. Andalusian spirit, as it seems to have been born and raised mostly in Al-Andalus, had happened to the Christian kingdoms not only from the border counties and primitive Christian kingdoms, but also by internal ethnic fabric itself.
peninsular Christian realms seem to me like the same Al-Andalus, a differential. The continuing inclination of the monarchs of the urban settlement is due, of course, real power compensation against the power of the nobility, and restocking, but also a continued use of models came from Al-Andalus The special protection peninsular Christian monarchs gave their Muslim and Jewish subjects was not common in Europe. By contrast, during the presence of European crusaders in the Peninsular Wars, the Kings struggled at times in a tax, to protect his subjects from the depredations that would be subject to the Crusaders, considering them natural in Europe, and they believed the wars of religion and plunder at least in part.
There is nothing more than the fulfillment of the chapters, the Christian kings Spaniards agreed with the Islamic cities they conquered, that the taking, pillage and genocide wrought by the Crusaders in Barbastro, for example. Neither was common in Europe and senior advisers had Jews and Muslims, or Islamic troops, serving the Christian kings and peninsular states, as was the case until the end of the previous Trastámara the Catholic Kings. As
major Christian kingdoms began to occupy Muslim lands of Al-Andalus, from more or less than the conquest of Toledo in 1085 by Alfonso VI, the system of capitulations that we have spoken is generalized. The Muslim population is under the rule pacta Christian political conditions of religious freedom, freedom from legal and customs, which transforms it into mudağğan-under- whence the term 'Moorish'. This occurs for several centuries with alternatives that are usually of dialogue and mutual coexistence, sometimes differences until after the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Christian part broken off the repressive and exploitative and Capitulaciones , from Cardinal Ximenes, requires the Mudejar-old and new, to become a Catholic mass and strength or to emigrate, while destroying their books and their civilization. Sephardic Jews had been forced to the same, and also robbed a few years earlier by themselves Catholic Monarchs.
No But such was the force of the Andalusian in many of the normal manifestations of the English people, that what is usually called Mudejar Mudejar art unfolds splendidly since the thirteenth century or so, until the sixteenth, and English America until the nineteenth century, especially in architecture. Mudejar what can be considered as the great English contribution to the universal architectural art and art forms and styles of construction. Even in the late nineteenth and twentieth century there is a reenactment neomudéjar in various parts of Spain and some of its features typical English persist today. Coexistence and
debate, dialogue ultimately have for centuries been a distinctive heritage of English society and, in general, society Peninsula. Our human groups created models that were tested, were mixed styles, saps who shot to give animation to a common result of such broad legacy as Al-Andalus, one, several and persistent. Unfortunately, having been conquered the Kingdom of Granada, begins a complicated and difficult time for Spain as a whole and for English Muslims in particular. It is the time of the Moors, its literature aljamiado, persecution, pressure and exhaustion. Persecution Esquiline and not just against Muslims but against los conversos y los erasmistas, los luteranos, etc., considerados todos como herejes y dignos sujetos de muerte o expulsión.
A partir de las conversiones forzosas de los mudéjares empiezan los moriscos.
El sentimiento morisco, aunque diferencial –como ya he dicho varias veces- es esencialmente español, pero musulmán. Los moriscos son la última parte de Al-Andalus, sus últimas manifestaciones vivas que no terminaron con la caída del Reino de Granada, sino que se continuaron con la actividad de unas gentes dispersadas a la fuerza fuera de la Península Ibérica, o presentes dentro de ella de una forma más bien callada. Como es sabido, los moriscos adoptaron la resistencia pasiva de cara Governmental Authorities and Catholic, using several times the payment of money to the Crown and other hierarchies. Used the taqiyya or concealment of faith from persecution catholic method approved by fatwas or religious rulings given by ulama of North Africa. They used the religious syncretism and intoxication as is the case of the lead plates of Sacromonte. And they sent written very reasoned and high political level, even with contemporary relevance, as the letter of Prince Nuñez Muley to the highest Christian authority.
But also sought the protection of the nobility of Moorish origin acristianada or any Christian Nobility-old and the Church, concerned not to leave their lands and occupations and stop producing wealth. Extensive recourse to the preservation of the faith through the blended formula spreading was aljamiado literature. They worked hard and tried to capitalize and grow in population ... were grouped as confraternities dedicated to the cult of the Virgin and Jesus, both revered figures in the Qur'an. They proliferate predictions of hope that predicted the return of former times ...
On the other hand, however, remained constant and easy links to the Maghreb, also with the Ottoman Empire and various European countries, including France, Germany, Italia y Portugal evidentemente. En muchas circunstancias y momentos, “se echaron al monte”, como se dice en español castizo, formando partidas de guerrilleros que mantenían una lucha viva aunque cruel, sobre todo en el reino de Valencia y en el de Granada. Y se sublevaron varias veces. La más importante y conocida de estas sublevaciones es la que dio lugar a la Guerra y reino de las Alpujarras, muy dura y muy difícil, con varios miembros de la familia omeya a la cabeza.
En los primeros años del siglo XVII -no sin bastantes resistencias interiores de algún sector de la nobleza e incluso de personajes y estamentos eclesiásticos- la Corte de Madrid promulgó el decreto de expulsión de los moriscos, que were forced to remove their homeland and directed especially towards the Maghreb. Recently we have analyzed various vectors of the policy of the Habsburgs over the Moors and the oscillations of this policy, its internal and external causes, and it follows that the division of criteria was evident. And also analyzed the participation of professionals Moors in peninsular life episodes such as the Armada, and the defeat of King Sebastian of Portugal in Morocco, or life-Saharan Africa and in the conquest of Timbuktu and in the tracks ethnic and cultural left there so far.
The Moors were created and operated for more than half a century Moorish State de Salé la Vieja, en Rabat, una nueva patria con relaciones internacionales europeas y con la misma España e Felipe IV. Otras nuevas patrias hubo en Tetuán, en Chauen, en Tremecén, en Túnez, patrias adoptivas.
No todos se fueron al Magreb, sin embargo. Hubo una emigración fuerte, no cuantificada hasta ahora, al imperio Otomano, lo mismo que habían hecho muchos sefardíes.
La Civilización que queremos vivir nos lleva a un mundo global y es simplemente la suma y la mezcla de las civilizaciones. No puede haber choque de civilizaciones y de hecho nunca lo ha habido, sino interpenetraciones o amalgamas. Al-Andalus es un claro ejemplo de un proceso así, y lo ha sido el propio continente americano. No no clash of civilizations but ignorance and ignorance is dissolvable over time, with teaching in some and in others, the community of interest and dialogue.
All of which is summarized in the imperative of a true information, a true translation of concepts given a lucid terminology, not continue its efforts to add glazes and seeing how little we do to promote our similarities and how much we do for revitalize our differences with other countries and other aspects of faith. The latter is the cultural and historical illiteracy hollow presumptuously practicing some politicians and some religious of various trends, rather than be accountable to the truth, to reassess the politics or religion and to teach the street.
The "alliance of civilizations" that advocated Spain and the United Nations is not only embrace but also represents the alliance of well-conceived self-interest because they are the survival, development, as I said, and the enrichment of values \u200b\u200blearned or inherited from each other. It is the coexistence in diversity, where there is no more confrontation than this word and that word has to be truthful, useful, clear, well-poured a few other languages, ie the concept itself is to express and which seeks to understand others, be understood and inform. A treasure to share, if possible, between Sancho Panza and his friend and neighbor Ricote the Morisco.
Al-Andalus was the result of a reasoned debate and lived in an ongoing conversation and correct translation of self-interest, and that is why the paradigm has been ideal for many people and eventually readjust model.
The "alliance of civilizations," which I mentioned before, is a continuation of this archetype, but projected to the length and breadth of this global world and seen as desirable future for all scheme.
in principle desirable scheme is based on two realities: the understanding of peoples and, moreover, agreement and el equilibrio de sus gobiernos, sus economías, sus políticas y sus diplomacias; y la de las minorías de sentimiento compartido, que de momento son minorías pero que van creciendo y es de esperar que se difundan mucho más rápida, y eficaz.
http://identidadandaluza.wordpress.com/2009/12/15/al-andalus-conjuncion-de-culturas/
In some ways these ideas are to continue and to insist My other previous work, also reflective about the 'fact Andalusian' in one of the moments of its history. It seems obvious considering the fact that al-Andalus was not one and the same in successive periods, from those of political and administrative splendor of decline the brightest, in final Granada, or the whole hangover left behind in Moorish times. That said, it is obvious, which could be further explored could be the actions and reactions that had the Andalusian society, in these various eras, both face within itself as to the outside world, subject to various stimuli that were and those around her.
Al-Andalus-that is part of Islamic Iberian Peninsula had a variable extent depending on the period-was the result of a dialectic, the product of a centuries-long internal action and reaction. The phenomenon of Al-Andalus is that of Arabization and Islamization and religious culture, but largely ethnic. Arabization and Islamization ample funds were made on civilized population, in a sense etymological urban and rural Hispano-layer from above, with Visigothic elements added is clear that the establishment of the Arab population was important, not only through military tickets, which were decisive, but also on an ongoing basis, emigration, commercial and peaceful settlement. But can nevertheless be noted that the former population was as Islamised which is largely Arabized, or at least he stayed within the Arab political and administrative structure with all its consequences. And that town was the skeleton of Al Andalus, and in some sense, that of Christian Spain as it it was created.
Al Andalus is always presented as a special phenomenon, different from common. Al-Andalus was seen at first, for the Eastern Arabs, as "the distant sunset, the Far West", tub hamqa, land inept as he calls Al-Ğāhiz. Arab travelers are amazed by the manners and customs of that country and that Muslims follow procedures and fashions, for example military, typical of European Christians. The literature produced by writers Andalusian petty it seems, except in extraordinary cases which cause surprise.
These negative stimuli occurred in the early, imitative and subordinate reactions in man-Andalus.
Este al que yo llamo ‘hombre andalusí’ era -como es sabido- una mezcla muy reciente de los inmigrantes árabes, que habían venido con todos aquellos prejuicios, de los bereberes, sus compañeros de cultura amazigh, y de las poblaciones mal arabizadas que procedían del fondo hispanorromano y godo; junto con las poblaciones judías. El hombre andalusí reaccionó, adaptándose a los modelos orientales, plegándose a ellos como ejemplos ideales del buen hacer y del buen decir, superando sus propias contradicciones de amalgama.
Sin embargo, también a partir del Califato y durante el siglo XI sobre todo, la reacción frente al complejo imitativo tomó el signo contrario. It was probably the reform. Education, driven particularly by 'Abd al-Rahman III and his successors, which-to give "full prominence to the good teaching of the Arabic language" to get the charges of government-provided the intellectual andalusíes a self-confidence in their Arab culture and, therefore, a podium to enhance their self-worth. And this occurred both among the Muslims, and between Jews and Christians Arabized, thereby creating the outline of what later would focus on an imaginary model, which is the 'paradise Andalus', including Sephardic, no less imaginary in many aspects.
Si algo tuvo Al-Andalus de edad dorada y de modelo, obedeció, sin duda, a su mestizaje, a la conjunción de sus diferencias. Al-Andalus era un producto híbrido. La pluralidad interna que siempre han tenido las Españas, unida, en aquellas épocas, a una pluralidad de religiones, tres en concreto, tuvo como consecuencia un producto cohesionado, gracias, tal vez, a que sus tensiones fueron cuerdamente resueltas -y regidas- a lo largo de bastante tiempo. Indudablemente no se trató de un paraíso, excepto en el recuerdo del bien perdido que todo lo hermosea, sino de una aplicación continuada de una idea de estado -durante la época omeya- de un equilibrio, y de la comprensión de unas gentes las unas para las otras. Lasted as long as it lasted, and his example, not only his memory, was a model of what is desirable. But it was an internal plural, an alternative understanding of Hispanic basically Semitic garb, particularly Arabic, which reproduced the small, cohesive efforts as immediate past-the caliphate of Damascus, and where the foreign, ie the European and African, was the main cause of its disintegration and destruction. Once broken
balances and tensions facing the golden age nostalgia disappeared and was converted into a paradise, even the archetype.
Something that is obvious, in immediate connection with the particularities of certain cities and regions, and internal links muladí fund, Moorish and Christian-are independent, however, the origins of the Hispano population that settled on the Arabization and Islam. The southern half and the southeast peninsula had been the cradle of the great pre-Roman cultures, including Tartessian or Turdetano, which had joined the contributions Phoenician, Greek and Punic. The interior of the peninsula had other cultures, very homogeneous, immediate and continuous contact with those with social and political worlds Mediterranean. Romanization approved coverage gave everything, but why we should pensar que sustituyó a todo, excepto en la lengua y, probablemente, en una conciencia de comunidad cultural imbricada con la pluralidad básica. La romanización, que tenía mucho de oriental en sí misma, continuó durante unos años con la bizantinización del sur peninsular. Y a una, y a otra, vino a completar, que no a suplir, la arabización, que era otra hija de la romanización en buena parte y que había bebido en las mismas fuentes.
Lo godo dentro de Al-Andalus se juntó con lo hispanorromano, imbricado, como ya estaba, con el fondo hispano durante los últimos tiempos de la monarquía visigoda; y lo judío ya estuvo presente durante el período de la romanización -traído by it or from pre-Roman times, bringing the set was completed, forming the bottom of which we are speaking. The 'nationalism' Andalusian, based on this background, is what might occur during the Caliphate, during the actual division of the Taifa kingdoms on the mainland Christian times, and even in what is left of Al-Andalus for the time modern.
administrative and educational reform, undertaken by 'Abd al-Rahman III and his successors, together with the weight of a new social class of the freedmen, beyond the traditional Arab family and its power, made the political dominance of these families look very reduced, matched prácticamente por los andalusíes del fondo hispanorromano, por los propios saqãliba o libertos y por algunos bereberes. Lo andalusí pasó a ser fundamentalmente andalusí, de forma árabe pero no de importación. Creo que esto ya se venía dando desde hacía mucho tiempo, pero probablemente fue el concepto de estado integrador omeya lo que precipitó el fenómeno, junto con la voluntad y el ejemplo de los mismos grandes califas. El concepto de estado integrador e igualador sobrevivió a la caída política del Califato, y todos los régulos de Taifas quisieron mirarse en él y en cierto modo considerarse unos meros representantes suyos, los virreyes de un califa ausente, más que sus sucesores siempre locales.
Los almorávides, que vinieron del Magreb a partir de la fitna califal, fracasaron en la Península, pese a la decisiva influencia andalusí dentro de sus modos y Administración prolongada y aumentada con los almohades, porque no vinculaban todas las contradicciones internas peninsulares frente al exterior; sino que ellos eran el exterior. Lo que la sociedad de la Península necesitaba era un Estado atípico, al estilo del que había empezado a formarse bajo el Califato. Alfonso VI y Alfonso VII pretendieron rehacerlo bajo una forma cristiana y más feudalizada; Alfonso X y, más tarde, Pedro I, incluso los Trastámara, oscilaron en lo mismo; y esto sólo entre los reyes de Castilla-León. Su modelo y his thoughts were largely those of an inclusive state, common to all Hispanics, Christians, Muslims and Jews, with their personalities and cultures in tow. It was a peninsular model.
To strengthen this model came to join the Mozarabic, or Andalusian Arabized Christians, the musta'ribeen-musta'aribīn, who had occupied all public officials, with freedom of worship, and even military responsibilities before, during and even after the Caliphate in close contact with the independent Christian kingdoms of the north, and the early Christians muladíes or Visigoths and Hispano or themselves but Islamized. The Mozarabic perdieron peso y fuerza con la entrada de los almorávides, y buena parte de ellos emigró a los reinos cristianos.
Es de todos sabido que el Islam ve a los judíos y a los cristianos como los Hombres del Libro, la Torah y el ́Inğīl o Nuevo Testamento, o sea la Biblia, sagradas escrituras como el Corán; y en consecuencia con plena potestad de ejercer sus religiones. En la época califal de Al-Andalus tuvieron esta libertad bajo la autoridad de sus rabinos y de sus obispos. Protegidos bajo el estatuto de ‘dimmíes’, pagaban únicamente unos determinados tributos y ejercían, como he dicho antes, toda clase de profesiones, cargos e instituciones, así como poseían sus sinagogas e iglesias. Evidentemente this continued in the period of so-called "Taifa Kingdoms-tawa 'if-and immediately before, during the difficult fall of the Caliphate and its division was intended circumstantial, that is the time of fitna, but there was a significant gap in the short rule of the southern North African Almoravids and had some difficulties in the long incorporation of Al-Andalus to the Almohad empire Moroccan. They and their successors almohades meriníes and kept in Morocco wattasíes mercenary Christian militias in part, probably, were minted Mozarabic, being known by the generic Farfan, which, transformed into a family name, aún quedan personas en Fez. Mozárabe quizás fue el real y legendario co-fundador del reino de Portugal, un ricohombre de nombre Egas Móniz. Y al propio Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar se le atribuye a veces un origen mozárabe, lo que seguramente no es cierto pese a su arabización manifiesta, muy común por otra parte en muchos de los caballeros castellanos de estas épocas, como en su propio sobrino Munaya Álvar Fáñez, e incluso en los reyes.
Los mozárabes conservaron dentro del territorio musulmán y en los reinos cristianos muchas de las antiguas iglesias visigodas, y les dieron un sello propio. Construyeron otras a las que aportaron, junto con bastantes elementos innovadores, producto de su mestizaje cultural with Arab and Muslim world, not only unique artistic features, helping to change the customs and lifestyles in the realms of northern and central mainland, maintaining their religious rite to this day albeit testimonial.
regard to the third culture and the third religion of Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms, which means, among Jews, present and influential during the reign of the Visigoth and Byzantine occupation, his coming and his establishment in the Iberian Peninsula are uncertain. According to its sources may have come during the time of King Solomon son of David, joint business trips with the Phoenicians Turdetania or Tartessós, Tarshish, as mentioned in the Old Testament, establishing joint colonies. But the Roman empire, especially after the Diaspora, when Jews appear to have a significant population mass and strong, closely linked to the Hispano people and equipped with interactive links with Jewish communities from North Africa Palestine or Berbers converted. During the Visigothic kingdom relations between the Germanic aristocracy and the Jewish community went through moments of rupture and Visigothic persecution, the Jews received generally supported by the Hispano and their fellow Jews from North Africa. Accordingly
the emergence of Islam among the Arabs, which is nothing but the 'reenactment' Arabic-Semitic idea of \u200b\u200bOne God, to put it in some way, change all situations. The rapid spread of Islam across North Africa, mass voluntary conversions among the Berbers, the authority and direction of government of the Arab Umayyad rule in Damascus, recently opened, soon made it almost like a religious idea and the Mosaic similar to the Arian, who had been the religion of the Visigoths had recently been planted in front of the Iberian Peninsula.
The Visigoths were divided into a kind of aristocratic civil war among the most conservative and Germanic, and the closest to the Hispano population and culture, along with internal tensions remained between the former Arians and Catholics converted by the new monarchical order. At the time it occurs the entry of the Muslims, the Visigoth king Rodrigo represented the conservative camp after the death of King Witiza of opposite disposition, and the children of a rebellion Witiza kept hidden, tolerated by the insecurity of Rodrigo, allowing them to hold high military posts and church in the south and east of the peninsula.
is therefore very likely that the children have prepared a revolt Witiza seeking la alianza de los musulmanes establecidos al otro lado del Estrecho y que lo hayan hecho a través de las comunidades judías de la Península y del norte de África, y de sus propios partidarios y dignatarios de origen bereber, como el conde Olián –el don Julián de las leyendas y romances- gobernador visigodo de Tánger.
La batalla de Guadalete o de la Janda es más bien un choque entre visigodos, puesto que las fuerzas mandadas por los hijos de Vitiza se revolvieron contra Rodrigo auxiliadas por los musulmanes desembarcados hacía poco. Las ciudades fueron cayendo rápidamente unas tras otras y, conforme avanzaba el ejército vencedor, tropas judías se encargaban del cuidado y defensa de las plazas. Ya sabemos que The initial approach was changed and that Islam, after the new expansion so easy and so ingrained in some way with Jews, Hispano, and a large proportion of the Visigoths, who established his government, leading to Al-Andalus. Many Hispano-Visigoths and many were becoming Muslims, and called them muladíes, others kept their Christianity and gradually Arabized leading the Mozarabic we've seen. The Jews were also under Arab rule, firstly dependent on Damascus, after the Emirate and independent Umayyad Caliphate, the Taifa Almoravids and Almohad empires and the kingdom of Granada. The whole life of Al-Andalus. For them, the whole life Sefarad.
Sefarad –Al-Andalus judío- fue probablemente la mejor época y más fructífera de la dispersión hebrea de la Diáspora. Los sefardíes destacaron en todo, ocuparon los más altos cargos, cultivaron la mística, la ciencia, la medicina, la filosofía, la literatura; fueron primeros ministros, diplomáticos y gobernantes como Ḥasday ben Šaprūt con el califa ‘Abd al-Raḥmān III, los Ben Nagrella en el reino de Taifas de Granada, Yehudā ha-Levi en el reino cristiano pero arabizado de Castilla… Y por supuesto el cordobés Mošē ben Maymōn, Maimónides, filósofo y médico universal del periodo almohade, entre una myriad of talents of all kinds.
I talked about the cultural and linguistic Arabization of the Umayyad period and from it, but we know that there was a bilingual colloquial people also spoke in Romance dialects, including the noble origin and stamp Arabs, sang them, and called many things about everyday life in them, and they got along with the Christians of the north, many of which, in turn, spoke and read Arabic. It is quite possible that these romances and talking about inter-lingua colloquial Arabic has been maintained until very advanced, which is beginning to study.
All these samples mixed-race mixture, mixing languages and cultures-this adaptation, appropriation and to some extent 'nationalism' are those that characterize the phenomenon Andalusian and counteract the inflow from Europe, also resisting the Islamic Reform Movement in the Maghreb, and keeping the Andalusian phenomenon even during the late Middle Ages. The circumstances of the mixture are those set to Al-Andalus as such and to characterize, in turn, to the same neighboring Christian kingdoms, relatives, allies and enemies in a dynamic that transcends, in my view, a purely defensive offensive or moving boundaries. Some Christian kingdoms, despite the European feudal influences, visible in some than others, are special, different and characteristic of cohabitation, to put it in some way. Andalusian spirit, as it seems to have been born and raised mostly in Al-Andalus, had happened to the Christian kingdoms not only from the border counties and primitive Christian kingdoms, but also by internal ethnic fabric itself.
peninsular Christian realms seem to me like the same Al-Andalus, a differential. The continuing inclination of the monarchs of the urban settlement is due, of course, real power compensation against the power of the nobility, and restocking, but also a continued use of models came from Al-Andalus The special protection peninsular Christian monarchs gave their Muslim and Jewish subjects was not common in Europe. By contrast, during the presence of European crusaders in the Peninsular Wars, the Kings struggled at times in a tax, to protect his subjects from the depredations that would be subject to the Crusaders, considering them natural in Europe, and they believed the wars of religion and plunder at least in part.
There is nothing more than the fulfillment of the chapters, the Christian kings Spaniards agreed with the Islamic cities they conquered, that the taking, pillage and genocide wrought by the Crusaders in Barbastro, for example. Neither was common in Europe and senior advisers had Jews and Muslims, or Islamic troops, serving the Christian kings and peninsular states, as was the case until the end of the previous Trastámara the Catholic Kings. As
major Christian kingdoms began to occupy Muslim lands of Al-Andalus, from more or less than the conquest of Toledo in 1085 by Alfonso VI, the system of capitulations that we have spoken is generalized. The Muslim population is under the rule pacta Christian political conditions of religious freedom, freedom from legal and customs, which transforms it into mudağğan-under- whence the term 'Moorish'. This occurs for several centuries with alternatives that are usually of dialogue and mutual coexistence, sometimes differences until after the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Christian part broken off the repressive and exploitative and Capitulaciones , from Cardinal Ximenes, requires the Mudejar-old and new, to become a Catholic mass and strength or to emigrate, while destroying their books and their civilization. Sephardic Jews had been forced to the same, and also robbed a few years earlier by themselves Catholic Monarchs.
No But such was the force of the Andalusian in many of the normal manifestations of the English people, that what is usually called Mudejar Mudejar art unfolds splendidly since the thirteenth century or so, until the sixteenth, and English America until the nineteenth century, especially in architecture. Mudejar what can be considered as the great English contribution to the universal architectural art and art forms and styles of construction. Even in the late nineteenth and twentieth century there is a reenactment neomudéjar in various parts of Spain and some of its features typical English persist today. Coexistence and
debate, dialogue ultimately have for centuries been a distinctive heritage of English society and, in general, society Peninsula. Our human groups created models that were tested, were mixed styles, saps who shot to give animation to a common result of such broad legacy as Al-Andalus, one, several and persistent. Unfortunately, having been conquered the Kingdom of Granada, begins a complicated and difficult time for Spain as a whole and for English Muslims in particular. It is the time of the Moors, its literature aljamiado, persecution, pressure and exhaustion. Persecution Esquiline and not just against Muslims but against los conversos y los erasmistas, los luteranos, etc., considerados todos como herejes y dignos sujetos de muerte o expulsión.
A partir de las conversiones forzosas de los mudéjares empiezan los moriscos.
El sentimiento morisco, aunque diferencial –como ya he dicho varias veces- es esencialmente español, pero musulmán. Los moriscos son la última parte de Al-Andalus, sus últimas manifestaciones vivas que no terminaron con la caída del Reino de Granada, sino que se continuaron con la actividad de unas gentes dispersadas a la fuerza fuera de la Península Ibérica, o presentes dentro de ella de una forma más bien callada. Como es sabido, los moriscos adoptaron la resistencia pasiva de cara Governmental Authorities and Catholic, using several times the payment of money to the Crown and other hierarchies. Used the taqiyya or concealment of faith from persecution catholic method approved by fatwas or religious rulings given by ulama of North Africa. They used the religious syncretism and intoxication as is the case of the lead plates of Sacromonte. And they sent written very reasoned and high political level, even with contemporary relevance, as the letter of Prince Nuñez Muley to the highest Christian authority.
But also sought the protection of the nobility of Moorish origin acristianada or any Christian Nobility-old and the Church, concerned not to leave their lands and occupations and stop producing wealth. Extensive recourse to the preservation of the faith through the blended formula spreading was aljamiado literature. They worked hard and tried to capitalize and grow in population ... were grouped as confraternities dedicated to the cult of the Virgin and Jesus, both revered figures in the Qur'an. They proliferate predictions of hope that predicted the return of former times ...
On the other hand, however, remained constant and easy links to the Maghreb, also with the Ottoman Empire and various European countries, including France, Germany, Italia y Portugal evidentemente. En muchas circunstancias y momentos, “se echaron al monte”, como se dice en español castizo, formando partidas de guerrilleros que mantenían una lucha viva aunque cruel, sobre todo en el reino de Valencia y en el de Granada. Y se sublevaron varias veces. La más importante y conocida de estas sublevaciones es la que dio lugar a la Guerra y reino de las Alpujarras, muy dura y muy difícil, con varios miembros de la familia omeya a la cabeza.
En los primeros años del siglo XVII -no sin bastantes resistencias interiores de algún sector de la nobleza e incluso de personajes y estamentos eclesiásticos- la Corte de Madrid promulgó el decreto de expulsión de los moriscos, que were forced to remove their homeland and directed especially towards the Maghreb. Recently we have analyzed various vectors of the policy of the Habsburgs over the Moors and the oscillations of this policy, its internal and external causes, and it follows that the division of criteria was evident. And also analyzed the participation of professionals Moors in peninsular life episodes such as the Armada, and the defeat of King Sebastian of Portugal in Morocco, or life-Saharan Africa and in the conquest of Timbuktu and in the tracks ethnic and cultural left there so far.
The Moors were created and operated for more than half a century Moorish State de Salé la Vieja, en Rabat, una nueva patria con relaciones internacionales europeas y con la misma España e Felipe IV. Otras nuevas patrias hubo en Tetuán, en Chauen, en Tremecén, en Túnez, patrias adoptivas.
No todos se fueron al Magreb, sin embargo. Hubo una emigración fuerte, no cuantificada hasta ahora, al imperio Otomano, lo mismo que habían hecho muchos sefardíes.
La Civilización que queremos vivir nos lleva a un mundo global y es simplemente la suma y la mezcla de las civilizaciones. No puede haber choque de civilizaciones y de hecho nunca lo ha habido, sino interpenetraciones o amalgamas. Al-Andalus es un claro ejemplo de un proceso así, y lo ha sido el propio continente americano. No no clash of civilizations but ignorance and ignorance is dissolvable over time, with teaching in some and in others, the community of interest and dialogue.
All of which is summarized in the imperative of a true information, a true translation of concepts given a lucid terminology, not continue its efforts to add glazes and seeing how little we do to promote our similarities and how much we do for revitalize our differences with other countries and other aspects of faith. The latter is the cultural and historical illiteracy hollow presumptuously practicing some politicians and some religious of various trends, rather than be accountable to the truth, to reassess the politics or religion and to teach the street.
The "alliance of civilizations" that advocated Spain and the United Nations is not only embrace but also represents the alliance of well-conceived self-interest because they are the survival, development, as I said, and the enrichment of values \u200b\u200blearned or inherited from each other. It is the coexistence in diversity, where there is no more confrontation than this word and that word has to be truthful, useful, clear, well-poured a few other languages, ie the concept itself is to express and which seeks to understand others, be understood and inform. A treasure to share, if possible, between Sancho Panza and his friend and neighbor Ricote the Morisco.
Al-Andalus was the result of a reasoned debate and lived in an ongoing conversation and correct translation of self-interest, and that is why the paradigm has been ideal for many people and eventually readjust model.
The "alliance of civilizations," which I mentioned before, is a continuation of this archetype, but projected to the length and breadth of this global world and seen as desirable future for all scheme.
in principle desirable scheme is based on two realities: the understanding of peoples and, moreover, agreement and el equilibrio de sus gobiernos, sus economías, sus políticas y sus diplomacias; y la de las minorías de sentimiento compartido, que de momento son minorías pero que van creciendo y es de esperar que se difundan mucho más rápida, y eficaz.
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